PREPOSITIONS

PREPOSITIONS

• Definition
• Rules
• Kinds Of Preposition

 DEFINITION:-

The word Preposition means 'that which is placed before'.
"A Preposition is a word placed before a noun or a pronoun to show in what relation the person or thing denoted by it stands in regard to something else.
Example:

1. There is a cow in the field.
   In above sentence, the word 'in' show a the relation between two things cow and field.
   (the Preposition joins a Noun to another Noun)
   
2. He is fond of tea.
   In above sentence, the word ‘of’ shows the relation between the attribute expressed by the adjective fond and tea.
   (the Preposition joins a Noun to an Adjective)
   
3. The cat jumped off the chair.
   In above sentence, the word off shows the relation between the action expressed by the verb jumped and the chair.
   (the Preposition joins a Noun to a Verb.)
   

Therefore, the words in, of, off are here used as Prepositions.

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 RULES:

OBJECTS OF PREPOSITION:
The Noun or Pronoun which is used with a Preposition is called its Object. It is in the Accusative case and is said to be governed by the Preposition.
Thus, in example 1: There is a cow in the field.
The noun field is in the Accusative case, governed by the Preposition in.
A Preposition may have two or more objects; as,
Example: The road runs over hill and plain.

A Preposition is usually placed before its object, but sometimes it follows it; as,

1. Here is the watch that you asked for.
2. That is the boy (whom) I was speaking of.
3. What are you looking at?
4. What are you thinking of?
5. Which of these chairs did you sit on?

Points To Remember:

• When the object is the Relative Pronoun 'that', the Preposition is always placed at the end (as shown in example in).
• The Preposition is often placed at the end when the object is an interrogative pronoun (as shown in example 3, 4 and 5) or a Relative pronoun understood (as shown in example 2).
• Sometimes the object is placed first for the sake of emphasis; as,
  * This I insist on.
  * He is known all the world over.
• The Prepositions for, from, in, on are often omitted before nouns of place or time; as,
  * We did it last week.
  * I cannot walk a yard.
  * Wait a minute.

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 KINDS OF PREPOSITION:

Prepositions may be arranged in the following classes:-

• Simple Preposition
• Compound Preposition
• Phrase Preposition
• Participial Preposition
• Adverb As Preposition

1) Simple Prepositions:
Examples: At, by, for, from, in, of, off, on, out, through, till, to, up, with.
Use of Simple preposition:
1. By:

• By cheque
• By credit card
• By mistake
• By accident
• By chance
• By boat
• By bus
• By plane
• By rail
• By sea
• By coach
• By air

2. In

• In cash
• In advance
• In general
• In my opinion
• In a taxi
• In a car
• In a helicopter
• In the classroom
• In the kitchen
• In the library
• In a hurry
• In a play

3. On

• On holiday
• On business
• on a journey
• On a trip
• On a tour
• On TV
• On the phone
• On the internet
• On the radio
• On the market
• On the whole
• On the train

4. For:

• Wait for
• Apply for
• Ask for
• Pay for
• Look For

5. At:

• Smile at
• Look at
• Good at
• Point at
• Arrive at

6. To:

• Talk to
• Speak to
• Listen to
• Agree to
• Go to

7. From:

• Recover from
• Hide from
• Suffer from
• Save from
• Make From

Simple Preposition For Time:
1. At:

• At 3:00 am
• At breakfast
• At the moment
• At that time
• At night
• At noon
• At dinner
• At Easter
• At midnight
• At midday
• At Christmas
• At 6 O'clock

2. In

• In 2004
• In July
• In the 21^st century
• In the summer
• In the autumn
• In the spring
• In the afternoon
• In an hour
• In the past
• In five minutes
• In the future
• In the winter

3. On

• On Tuesday
• On July 30
• On independence
• On Friday
• On he weekend
• On time
• On a cold day
• On a warm day
• On an autumn
• On your birthday
• On Christmas eve

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2) Compound Prepositions:
which are generally formed by prefixing a Preposition (usually a = no or be = by) to a (Noun, an Adjective or an Adverb.)
Example: About, above, across, along, amidst, among, amongst, around, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, inside, outside, underneath, within, without.

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3) Phrase Prepositions:
Groups of words used with the force of a single preposition.
Example:

• according to
  * He acted according to my instructions.
  
  
• agreeably to
  * Agreeably to the terms of the settlement, we herewith enclose our cheque for Rs. 1000.
  
  
• along with
  * Why don't you go along with your brother?
  
  
• away from
• because of
  * He could not attend school because of his father's serious illness.
  
  
• by dint of
  * He succeeded by dint of perseverance and sheer hard work.
  
  
• by means of
  * By means of rope ladders they scaled the wall.
  
  
• by reason of
  * By reason of his perverse attitude, he estranged his best friends.
  
  
• by virtue of
  * By virtue of the power vested in me, I hereby order, etc.
  
  
• by way of
  * By way of introduction, he made some pertinent remarks.
  
  
• conformably to
• for the sake of
  * For the sake of their beliefs, the Puritans emigrated to America.
  
  
• in accordance with
  * In accordance with your instructions, we have remitted the amount to bankers.
  
  
• in addition to
• in (on) behalf of
  * He died fighting on behalf of his country.
  * On behalf of the staff he read the address.
  
  
• in case of
  * In case of need phone to No. 32567.
  
  
• in comparison to
• in compliance with
• in consequence of
  * In consequence of his illness he could not finish the work in time.
  
  
• in course of
  * In course of time he saw his mistake.
  * In course of his researches he met with many difficulties.
  
  
• in favour of
  * He abdicated the throne in favour of his eldest son.
  
  
• in front of
  * There is a big tree in front of his house.
  
  
• in lieu of
  * He accepted the car in lieu of his claim for Rs. 1,25,000.
  
  
• in order to
  * In order to avoid litigation, he accepted Rs. 300 in full settlement of his claim for Rs. 450.
  
  
• in place of
• in reference to
• in regard to
• in spite of
  * He persevered in spite of difficulties.
  
  
• instead of
  * Instead of talking, prove your worth by doing something.
  
  
• in the event of
  * In the event of his dying without an issue, his nephew would inherit the property.
  
  
• on account of
  * On account of his negligence the company suffered a heavy loss.
  
  
• owing to
  * Owing to his ill health, he retired from business.
  
  
• with a view to
  * With a view to an amicable settlement, we offer you without prejudice R in full settlement of all your claims up-to-date.
  
  
• with an eye to
  * Whatever he does, he does with an eye to the main chance.
  
  
• with reference to
  * With reference to your letter of date, we regret we cannot allow any further rebate.
  
  
• with regard to

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4) Participial Prepositions:
Words which are present participles of verbs, are used absolutely without any noun or pronoun being attached to them. For all practical purposes, they have become Prepositions, and are sometimes distinguished as Participial Prepositions (also called Participle prepositions).
In other words, Participle (ending with '-ed' and '-ing') when function as preposition, they are called Participial Prepositions.
Examples:

• Barring (excepting, apart from)
  * Barring accident, the mail will arrive tomorrow.
  
  
• Concerning (about)
  * Concerning yesterday's fire, there are many rumours in the bazar.
  
  
• Considering (taking into account)
  * Considering the quality, the price is not high.
  
  
• During
  * Ulysses is said to have invented the game of chess during the siege of Troy.
  
  
• Notwithstanding (in spite of)
  * Notwithstanding the resistance offered by him, he was arrested by the police.
  
  
• Pending
  * Pending further orders, Mr. Ted will act as Headmaster.
  
  
• Regarding
  * Regarding your inquiries, we regret to say that at present we are not interested in imitation silk.
  
  
• Respecting
  * Respecting the plan you mention. I shall write to you hereafter.
  
  
• Touching (with regard to)
  * Touching  this matter, I have not as yet made up my mind.

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5) Adverbs As Preposition:
Several words are used sometimes as Adverbs and sometimes as Prepositions. A word is a Preposition when it governs a noun or pronoun; it is an Adverb when it does not.
Examples

• Adverb: Go, and run about.
  Preposition: Don't loiter about the street.
  
  
• Adverb: I could not come before.
  Preposition: I came the day before yesterday.
  
  
• Adverb: Has he come in?
  Preposition: Is he in his room?
  
  
• Adverb: The wheel came off.
  Preposition: The driver jumped off the car.
  
  
• Adverb: Let us move on.
  Preposition: The book lies on the table.
  
  
• Adverb: His father arrived soon after.
  Preposition: After a month he returned.
  
  
• Adverb: Take this parcel over to the post-office.
  Preposition: He rules over a vast empire.
  
  
• Adverb: I have not seen him since.
  Preposition: I have not slept since yesterday.

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Tenses

Tenses

• Formulas

FORMULAS

Simple/Indefinite tense (Formula):

• PRESENT:
  Subject (singular) + verb (first form with s/es) + Object
  Subject (Plural) + verb (first form without s) + Object
  
  
• PAST:
  Subject + verb (Second form) + Object
  
  
• FUTURE:
  Subject (I /we) + shall + verb (first form) + Object
  Subject + will + verb (first form) + Object

Continuous tense (Formula):

• PRESENT:
  Subject (I) + am + verb (first form with ing) + Object
  Subject (singular) + is + verb (first form with ing) + Object
  Subject (Plural) + are + verb (first form with ing) + Object
  
  
• PAST:
  Subject (singular) + was + verb (first form with ing) + Object
  Subject (Plural) + were + verb (first form with ing) + Object
  
  
• FUTURE:
  Subject (I /we) + shall be + verb (first form with ing) + Object
  Subject + will be + verb (first form with ing) + Object

Perfect tense (Formula):

• PRESENT:
  Subject (singular) + has + verb (third form) + Object + time
  Subject (Plural) + have + verb (third form) + Object + time
  
  
• PAST:
  Subject + had + verb (third form) + Object + time
  
  
• FUTURE:
  Subject (I /we) + shall have + verb (third form) + Object + time
  Subject + will have + verb (third form) + Object + time

Perfect Continuous tense (Formula):

• PRESENT:
  Subject (singular) + has been + verb (first form with ing) + Object + time
  Subject (Plural) + have been + verb (first form with ing) + Object + time
  
  
• PAST:
  Subject + had been+ verb (first form with ing) + Object + time
  
  
• FUTURE:
  Subject (I /we) + shall have been + verb (first form with ing) + Object + time
  Subject + will have been + verb (first form with ing) + Object + time

Types Of Pronouns

TYPES OF PRONOUN

• Personal Pronoun
• Relative Pronoun
• Interrogative Pronoun
• Reflexive Pronoun
• Object Pronoun
• Demonstrative Pronoun
• Indefinite Pronoun
• Possessive Pronoun
• Subject Pronoun
• Reciprocal Pronoun

• Personal Pronoun: It is used to replace specific things, groups, or persons. Examples include I, you, he, she, it, we, they etc.
• Relative Pronoun: Relative Pronoun connect phrases Examples include Who, Whom, , Whose, Which, etc.
• Interrogative Pronoun: Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions. Examples include which, whom and where etc.
• Reflexive Pronoun: Reflexive Pronoun reflect back to subject of sentence. Examples include myself, yourself, herself, himself etc.
• Object Pronoun: Object Pronouns are used as the object of a sentence. Examples include me, you, him, her, it, us, them etc.
• Demonstrative Pronoun: Point to specific people, places, or things. Examples include This, that, these, those.
• Indefinite Pronoun: It refers to nonspecific things or persons. Examples include Everyone, Anyone and Anybody etc.
• Possessive Pronoun: Possessive Pronouns show ownership or possession. Examples include yours, his etc.
• Subject Pronoun: Subject Pronouns are used as the subject of a sentence. Examples include I, you, he, she, it, we, they etc.
• Reciprocal Pronoun: Reciprocal Pronoun indicates reciprocal actions. Examples include each other, one another etc.

PAST TENSE

Past Tense

A verb that refers to past time is said to be the past tense. The past tense is a grammatical tense used to describe actions or events that have already occurred. It indicates that the action is completed and typically involves the use of specific verb forms.

Forms Of Past Tense

There are four forms of past tense:

1. Simple Past Tense
2. Past Progressive or Past Continuous Tense
3. Past Perfect Tense
4. Past perfect Progressive Or Past perfect Continuous Tense

Each form conveys different aspects of time and completion related to the action.

Simple Past Tense

Simple past tense is used to to describe actions or events that were completed at a specific time in the past..

FORMULA:
Subject + verb (2^nd form) + Object
USES:

1. Completed Actions: To describe actions that were completed in the past, often with a specific time reference.
   e.g., "She visited Paris last year".
2. Sequential Actions: To narrate a series of events that occurred one after the other.
   e.g., "He woke up, got dressed, and left the house".
3. Past Habits or Routines: To indicate habits or routines that were true in the past but are no longer the case.
   e.g., "They played soccer every Saturday".
4. Past Facts or Generalizations: To state facts or general truths that were true in the past.
   e.g., "The company was founded in 1990".
5. Reported Speech: To report what someone said in the past.
   e.g., "She said she was tired".

SIGNAL WORDS:

• Yesterday
• Last week/month/year
• In 2010 (or any specific year)
• Ago (e.g., "two days ago")
• Earlier
• When (in the context of a completed action)
• At that time

EXAMPLES:

• Affirmative: He spoke.
• Negative: He did not speak.
• Question: Did he speak?

Past Progressive (Continuous) Tense

The past continuous tense, also known as the past progressive tense, is used to describe actions or events that were ongoing sometime in the past.

FORMULA:

• Subject + auxiliary verbs (was, were) + verb (1^st form) ing + Object
• Subject (singular) + was + verb (1^st form) ing + Object
• Subject (Plural) + were + verb (1^st form) ing + Object

USES:

• Describing Ongoing Actions in the Past: It indicates that an action was in progress at a specific moment in the past.
  For example, "I was reading a book at 8 PM last night."
• Setting the Scene: It helps to provide background information or context in storytelling.
  For example, "The sun was setting, and the birds were singing."
• Simultaneous Actions: It can describe two or more actions happening at the same time in the past.
  For example, "While I was cooking, my friend was setting the table."
• Interrupted Actions: It is used to show that a longer action was interrupted by a shorter another action.
  For example, "I was watching TV when the phone rang."
• Repeated Actions: It can express actions that were happening repeatedly in the past, often with a sense of annoyance or habit.
  For example, "He was always borrowing my books without asking."

SIGNAL WORDS:

• While
• When
• As
• At that moment
• During
• All day
• At that time

EXAMPLES:

• Affirmative:
  * He was speaking.
  * They were speaking.
  
  
• Negative:
  * He was not speaking.
  * They were not speaking.
  
  
• Question:
  * Was he speaking?
  * Were they speaking?

Past Perfect (Simple) Tense

To describe one action that happened before another action in the past. It establishes a clear sequence of events, indicating that one past action was completed prior to another past action.

FORMULA:
Subject + had + verb (3^rd form) + Object

USES:

• Action taking place before a certain time in the past.
• Sometimes interchangeable with past perfect progressive.
• Putting emphasis only on the fact (not the duration).

SIGNAL WORDS:

• already
• never
• just
• not yet
• once
• until that day
• If (sentence type III - e.g. If I had talked......)

EXAMPLES:

• Affirmative: He had spoken.
• Negative: He had not spoken.
• Question: Had he spoken?

Past Perfect Progressive (Continuous)

To describe an action that started in the past and was still in progress when a second action started.

FORMULA:
Subject + had + been + verb(1^st form) ing + Object

USES:

• Action taking place before a certain time in the past.
• Sometime interchangeable with past perfect simple.
• Putting emphasis during or the course of an action.

SIGNAL WORDS:

• for
• since
• the whole day
• all day

EXAMPLES:

• Affirmative: He had been speaking.
• Negative: He had not been speaking.
• Question: Had he been speaking?

PRESENT TENSE

Present Tense

A verb that refers to present time is said to be in the present tense. The present tense is a grammatical tense used to describe actions or states that are currently happening or are habitual. It can also express general truths or facts.

Forms Of Present Tense

There are four forms of present tense:

1. Present Indefinite or Simple Present Tense
2. Present Progressive or Present Continuous Tense
3. Present Perfect Tense
4. Present perfect Progressive Or Present perfect Continuous Tense

Present Indefinite (Simple Present) Tense

The present indefinite tense, also known as the simple present tense, is used to describe actions that are habitual, general truths, or facts that are currently true.

FORMULA:

• Subject (singular) + verb (1^st form) s/es + Object
• Subject (Plural) + ver (1^st form + Object

USES:

• to express routines, schedules, and universal truths
• Habitual Actions: To describe actions that are regular or habitual.
  For example, "She goes to the gym every morning."
• General Truths: To state facts or general truths that are always true.
  For example, "Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius."
• Scheduled Events: To refer to scheduled events in the near future, particularly in timetables or itineraries.
  For example, "The train departs at 6 PM."
• Instructions or Directions: To give instructions or directions.
  For example, "Turn left at the traffic light."
• Narrative Style: In storytelling or reporting, the simple present can be used to create a sense of immediacy.
  For example, "He walks into the room and sees everyone."
• State of Being: To describe a state or condition that is currently true.
  For example, "She feels happy."
• In exclamatory sentence beginning with here and there to express what is actually taking place in the present.
  For example, " Here comes the bus."
  "There she goes."
• to indicate quotations.
• 
  

SIGNAL WORDS:

• Always
• Usually
• Often
• Sometimes
• Rarely
• Never
• Every day
• On Mondays
• In the morning

EXAMPLES:

• Affirmative:
  * He speaks.
  * They speak.
  
  
• Negative:
  * He does not speak.
  * They do not speak.
  
  
• Question:
  * Does he speak?
  * Do they speak?

Present Progressive (Continuous) Tense

To indicate action that is happening at the time of speaking.

FORMULA:

• Subject + auxiliary verbs (am, is, are) + verb (1^st form) ing + Object
• Subject (singular) + am / is + verb (1^st form) ing + Object
• Subject (Plural) + are + verb  (1^st form) ing + Object

USES:

• Action take place in the moment of speaking.
• Action taking place only for a limited period of time.
• Now / temporary activities.
• Action arranged for the future.

SIGNAL WORDS:

• at the moment
• just
• just now
• listen
• Look!
• now
• right now

EXAMPLES:

• Affirmative: He is speaking.
• Negative: He is not speaking.
• Question: Is he speaking?

Present Perfect (Simple) Tense

Describe action that occurred in the past but are still relevant to the present.

FORMULA:

• Subject (singular) + has + verb (3^rd form) + Object
• Subject (Plural) + have + verb (3^rd form) + Object

USES:

• Putting emphasis on the result.
• Action that is still going on.
• Action that stopped recently.
• Finished action that has an influence on the present.
• Action that has taken place once, never or several times before the moment of speaking.

SIGNAL WORDS:

• already
• ever
• just
• never
• not yet
• so far
• till now
• up to now

EXAMPLES:

• Affirmative: He has spoken.
• Negative: He has not spoken.
• Question: Has he spoken?

Present Perfect Progressive (Continuous)

To describe an event that started in the past but is still happening in the present.

FORMULA:
Subject (singular) + has + been + verb(1^st form) ing + Object
Subject (Plural) + have + been + verb(1^st form) ing + Object

USES:

• Putting emphasis on the course or duration (not the result).
• Action that recently stopped or is still going on.
• Finished action that influenced the present.

SIGNAL WORDS:

• all day
• for four years
• since 1993
• how long
• the whole week

EXAMPLES:

• Affirmative: He has been speaking.
• Negative: He has not been speaking.
• Question: Has he been speaking?

DIALOGUES WRITING

DIALOGUES:

It is, in fact, a conversation on any topic between two or among more than two persons. It is always in the direct kind of speech. It could be in any tense or sense.

DIALOGUES WRITING OR CONVERSATION

• Between the father and the son about his class-fellow
  
• Between a shopkeeper and his customer.
• Between two friends about a cricket match.
• Between teacher and student on importance of games.
• Between a doctor and a patient.
• Between you and your friend on your preparation for the ensuing S.S.C. Examination.
• Between you and your friend or teacher about importance of learning english.
• Between you and your headmaster on the basis of issuing a transfer certificate.
• Between you and your friend regarding your future plan after the publication of the result.
• Between you and your friend about how to learn english/how to improve english.
• Between two friends about the importance of reading newspaper.
• Between two friends about the advantage and disadvantage of city life and village life. And city life.
• Between you and your friend about how to eradicate the illiteracy problem from our country.
• Between you and the salesman of the shop about to buy a pair of shoes.
• Between two friends the necessity of tree plantation.
• Between the headmaster and a student about testimonial.
• Between father and son on choice of career.
• Between two friends about a visit to a place of historical interest.
• Between a student and a bookseller.
• Between you and the headmaster regarding admission.

Comprehension

COMPREHENSION

Comprehension means complete understanding of the given passage.
There are certain rules to solve a comprehension.

1. READING:
   Read the passage carefully and try to capture all the major points and theme of the passage. Avoid all the difficult words.
   
   
2. RE-READING:
   Re-read the passage to make sure that you have captured all the major points and theme of the passage.
   
   
3. QUESTIONS READING:
   Read the questions given below the passage carefully so that you could be able to answer accordingly.
   
   
4. ANSWERS MARKING:
   Answers are available in the passage. You must find them and mark them accordingly.
5. ANSWERS WRITING IN OWN WORDS:
   We should try our best to write the answers in our own words. Because this is a rule by nature that after listening a story by someone if there is a question by the speaker regarding the story, we always answer in our own words.
   
   
6. REVISION:
   Revise all the written answers for your satisfaction. You may make a mistake because "To err is human".
   

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PASSAGE # 1

All parents wish that their children should get a good job. Let us see what they mean by a good job in which you have high salary but little work. They want their children to have and live a comfortable and luxurious life, with plenty of money and all kinds of desirable things. This is what they call a successful life and for this they bring up, educate their children, and wish them well. Getting a good job and living a comfortable life is not bad thing. Children are human beings and they should be educated to live a good life, not only a successful life.

Questions:
i. What do parents wish for their children?
ii. What do they mean by good job?
iii. What do they call successful life?
iv. What is the purpose of education for their parents?
v. Give nouns of the given words: luxurious, successful.
vi. Give a suitable title to the passage.
vii. Summarize the passage into one-third of its length.

Answer:
i. Parents wish for their children to get a good job and live a comfortable and luxurious life with plenty of money and desirable things.

ii. They mean by a good job in which one have a high salary but do little work.

iii. They call a successful life one where their children have a good job, live comfortably and luxuriously, and have plenty of money and desirable things.

iv. The purpose of education for parents is to bring up and educate their children is to get a good job and living a comfortably. Children should be educated to live a good life, not just a successful one.

v. Nouns of the given words:

• luxurious = luxury
• successful = success

vi. Suitable title for the passage:
"Parental Aspirations for Children's Success and Comfort".

vii. Summary:
Parents wish for their children to have a good job with a high salary and little work, leading to a comfortable and luxurious life with plenty of money and desirable things. They believe this is essential for a successful life and therefore focus on educating their children towards this goal.

---

PASSAGE # 2

A professional player is quite different from an amateur. His main aim is to make money. He plays game to earn money or to win a name. On the other hand, the amateur player has no such aim. He plays because he gets pleasure in playing. Games not only give him recreation but also physical exercise. He enjoys good health and sound physique. He plays the game as he wish. He observes all the rules and regulations of game. An amateur player plays honestly. He becomes gentleman and a reasonable citizen. He accepts his duties. He does not use to cheat or other unfair means. If he wins a game, he feels happy but he is not sad at losing it.

Questions:
i. What is meant by professional player?
ii. With what aim does a professional play games?
iii. What makes an amateur person a responsible citizen?
iv. How does an amateur player differ from a professional player?
v. Give adjectives of the given words: pleasure, duty.
vi. Give a title to the passage.
vii. Summarize the passage into one-third of its length.

Answer:
i. A professional player is someone who plays games with the main aim of making money.

ii. A professional player plays games to earn money or to win a name.

iii. An amateur person becomes a responsible citizen by playing games honestly, following rules and regulations, and accepting their duties.

iv. An amateur player differs from a professional player in that they play for pleasure and recreation, not primarily for financial gain or fame.

v. Adjectives of the given words:

• Pleasure = pleasurable
• Duty = dutiful

vi. Title for the passage:
"Contrasting Traits of Professional and Amateur Players".

vii. Summary:
Professional players aim to make money and gain recognition through playing games, while amateur players play for pleasure, recreation, and physical exercise. Amateurs follow rules, play honestly, and become responsible citizens by accepting their duties without resorting to cheating or unfair means.

---

PASSAGE # 3

In every country, people imagine that they are the best and the cleverest and the others are not, as good as they are. The Englishmen thinks that he and his country are the best; the Frenchman is very proud of France and everything French. The Germans and Italians think no less of their countries and many Indians imagine that India is in many ways the greatest country in the world. This is wrong. Everybody wants to think well of himself and his country. But really there is no person, who has not got some good and some bad qualities. In the same, there is no country, which is not partly good and partly bad. We must take the good wherever we find it and try to remove the bad wherever it may be. We are, of course, most concerned with our own country We have to find out how we can make them happier. Many of our people are poor and unhappy; they have no joy in their lives. We have to find out how we can make them happier. We have to see what is good in our ways and customs and try to accept it, and whatever is bad we have to throw away. If we find anything good in other countries, we should certainly accept it.

Questions:
i. What does everyone think of his country?
ii. What should we find out first?
iii. What should one accept or reject from the others?
iv. What should we do with our ways and customs?
V. Give antonyms of the given words: poor, partly.
vi. Write a summary of the given paragraph into one-third of its length.
vii. Give a suitable title.

Answer:
i. Everyone thinks that their country is the best and that they are the cleverest, while others are not as good as they are.

ii. We should first find out how we can make our country happier, especially for those who are poor and unhappy.

iii. One should accept the good qualities from other countries and reject the bad ones.

iv. We should accept the good aspects of our ways and customs, while discarding the bad ones.

v. Antonyms:

• Poor = Rich
• Partly = completely.

vi. Summary:
People tend to believe that their country is the best, but every country has both good and bad qualities. It is important to focus on making our country happier by accepting the good and discarding the bad, while also learning from other countries.

vii. Suitable title:
Embracing the Good, Rejecting the Bad OR Building a Happier Country.

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PASSAGE # 4

Overeating is one of the most wonderful practices among those who think that they can afford it. In fact, authorities say that nearly all who have meal as much as they desire avoid the disadvantages of meal. This class of people could save a great more food than they can save by missing one meal per week and at the same time they could improve their health.
A heavy meal at night, the so-called "dinner', is the fashion with many and often it is taken shortly before retiring. It is unnecessary and a loss of strength. Usually three to five hours are needed to digest the food. While sleeping, the food that is in many cases converted into excess fat, giving rise to over-weight. The evening meal should be light, taken three or four hours before retiring. This prevents overeating, conserves energy and reduces the unnecessary fats in the body.

Questions:
i. Who practices over-eating?
ii. What do authorities say about meal?
iii. What is the disadvantage of meal if is taken just before retiring?
iv. What are the advantages of meal if on time?
V. Give verbs of the given words: practice, authority.
vi. Give a title to the passage.
vii. Summarize the passage into one-third of its length.

Answers:
i. Those who think they can afford it practice over-eating.

ii. Authorities say that nearly all who eat as much as they desire avoid the disadvantages of over-eating.

iii. The disadvantage of eating a heavy meal just before retiring is that it can lead to excess fat and overweight as the body does not have enough time to digest the food.

iv. The advantages of eating meals on time include saving more food, improving health, conserving energy, and reducing unnecessary fats in the body.

v. Verbs:

• Practice = practicing
• Authority = authorize.

vi. Title:
The Importance of Timely and Light Meals for Health.

vii. Summary:
Over-eating, especially before retiring, can lead to excess fat and overweight. Authorities recommend eating light meals three to four hours before bedtime to prevent overeating, conserve energy, and reduce unnecessary fats in the body.

---

PASSAGE # 5

Trees give shade for the benefit of others and while they themselves stand in the sun and endure scorching heat, they produce the fruit by which others gain profit. The character of good men is like that of trees. What is the use of this perishable body, if no use of it is made for the benefit of mankind? Sandalwood - the more it is rubbed, the more scent does it yield. Sugarcane - the more it is peeled and cut into pieces, the more juice does it produce. The men who are noble at heart do not lose these qualities even in losing their lives. What does it matter, whether men praise them or not? What does it signify, whether they die at this moment or whether their lives are prolonged? Happen what may, those who tread right path will not set foot in other. Life itself is unprofitable to a man, who does not live for others. To live for the mere sake of living one's own life is to live the life of cows and dogs. Those who lay down their lives for the sake of a friend, or even for the sake of a stranger, will assuredly dwell forever in the world of bliss.

Questions:
i. What kind of character should a man have?
ii. What examples are given to emphasize the service to mankind?
iii. What does the writer compare the life of dogs and cows with?
iv. Give synonyms of the given words: stranger, bliss.
V. Give a title to the passage.
vi. Summarize the passage into one-third of its length.

Answers:
i. A man should have a character like that of trees, giving shade and producing fruit for the benefit of others.

ii. Examples of sandalwood and sugarcane are given to emphasize the idea that the more one gives or sacrifices, the more they yield for the benefit of others.

iii. The writer compares living solely for oneself to living the life of cows and dogs.

iv. Synonyms:

• Strange = Unknown person
• Bliss = Happiness.

v. Title:
Selfless Service and Noble Character.

vi. Summary:
The passage highlights the importance of selfless service to mankind, comparing the character of good men to that of trees providing shade and fruit for others. It emphasizes that living solely for oneself is akin to living the life of cows and dogs, and that those who sacrifice for others will find eternal bliss.

Definition Of Idioms, Phrases, Clauses and Proverbs

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IDIOMS, PHRASES, CLAUSES & PROVERBS

IDIOMS: Idioms are expression (phrase) peculiar to a language, which cannot be understood simply by looking at the meaning of the individual words in the phrase.
Many verbs, when followed by various prepositions, or adverbs acquires idiomatic sense.
Example:

• Break down
• In black & white
• An apple of one's eye
•  A red letter day etc.

PHRASE: Phrase is a group of words or a word without a subject or predicate. It is a grammatical unit and it adds meaning to a sentence.

Types Of Phrases:
There are five main types of phrases:

1. Noun Phrase: A Noun phrase is a group of words that does work of a noun. 
   E.g.
   * Early to bed
   * Playing cricket
   * To go home
   * A big red balloon etc.
   
   
2. Adjective Phrase: An adjective phrase is a group of words that does work of an adjective. 
   E.g.
   * Made of gold
   * In need
   * Of purple
   * With a white skin etc.
   
   
3. Adverb Phrase: An adverb phrase is a group of words that does work of an adverb.
   E.g.
   * On the whole
   * In a former time
   * Run quickly
   * All my heart etc.
   
   
4. Verb Phrase: A verb phrase is a group of words that does work of a verb. They are combination of auxiliary verb (helping verb) and the main verb.
   E.g.
   * Are working
   * Have eaten
   * Can smell
   * Will have been studying etc.
   
   
5. Prepositional Phrase: A prepositional phrase is a group of words that begins with a preposition and ends with a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase.
   E.g.
   * At a glance
   * In a hurry
   * On the table
   * For a reason etc.

CLAUSE:
Such a group of words that forms part of a sentence and has a Subject and Predicate of its own is called a clause.
E.g.

• They rested when evening come.
  In above sentence,'when evening come' is a clause' as it is a part of sentence. Here evening is noun (subject) and when come is predicate. 

Types Of Clauses:
There are some common type of clauses are:

1. Independent Clause: is a group of words that can stand alone to make a simple meaningful sentence as a regular sentence. It contains a subject and predicate. It is also called a principal clause.
   Independent clauses can be connected by  using a semicolon or comma the followed by a coordinators such as and, but, so, or, nor, for, yet.
   Example:
   * I will call you when I reach home.
   * John is a very successful doctor.
   * Can you do it?
   * I want to buy a phone, but I don’t have enough money. (Two independent clauses).
   
   
2. Dependent Clause: is a group of words that cannot stand alone as a complete sentence because it does not give complete idea or thought but help the independent clauses to complete the sentence. It contains subject and predicate. It is also called a subordinate clause or subclause or embedded clause. 
   In each of the dependent clauses, the first word is a subordinator. Subordinators include relative pronouns, subordinating conjunctions, and noun clause markers.
   Example:
   * When the sunset the stars come out.
   * Caesar couldn't catch the train because he was late.
   * If you don’t eat, I won’t go.
   * After the storm, we went outside to access the damage.
   
   Types Of Dependent Clauses:
   They are divided into three types:
   i) Adjective Clause: An adjective clause is a Dependent Clause that modifies a Noun. It is a group of words which contains a subject and predicate of its own and does the work of an Adjective.  These are also called Relative Clauses and they usually come right after the Nouns they modify.
   Examples:
   * The umbrella which has broken handle is mine.
   * He met a girl whose eyes are blue.
   * A person who never made a mistake never tried anything new.
   
   ii) Noun Clause: A noun clause is a Dependent Clause. It is a group of words which contains a subject and predicate of its own and does the work of a Noun.
   They are called Nominal Clauses. These clauses often start with “how,” “that,” or other WH-words (What, Who, Where, When, Why, Which, Whose and Whom), if, whether etc.
   Examples:
   * I expect that I shall get a prize.
   * I don't know what he wants.
   * He knows how things work around here.
   
   iii) Adverbial Clause: An adverb clause is a  Dependent Clauses. It is a group of words which contains a subject and predicate of its own and does the work of an Adverbs. It means that these clauses have the power to modify Verbs, Adjectives and other Adverbs.
   Example:
   * Alice is not playing with us because he injured his knees last night.
   * I went through the book at a lightning speed.
   * They rested when evening come.
   
   
3. Coordinate Clause: A coordinate clauses are two or more independent clauses in a sentence that are joined by one or more Coordinating Conjunctions (and, or, but etc.) in terms of Compound Sentences are called Coordinate Clauses. It is a group of words containing a subject and predicate.
   Examples:
   * Andrew prefers flying but his wife always wants to take a bus.
   * The students finished class so they went to lunch.
   * The rain ended and the sun came out.
   
   
4. Non-finite Clause: Non-finite clause does not have a finite verb. It does not show tense or time of verb  and does not contain subject.
   There are three types of non-finite clause.
   (i) The word ending in -ing is used.
   Examples:
   * The stars shone brightly, dancing around the moon last night.
   * Hearing the fireworks, the children jumped up.
   (ii) The verb come after the word to
   * He gave up his job to travel the world.
   * He was the last person to talked to me.
   
   (iii) The past particle form of the verb is used.
   * Disappointed with his quality the boss decided to fire him.
   * All children gathered in the group, were ready to perform a traditional dance.

PROVERBS: A proverb is a brief and wise saying that shares practical advice or general truth about life. In simple words proverb is a short saying or statement that usually offers life advice, wisdom, or a truth.
Example:

• Honesty is the best policy.
• An apple a day keeps the doctor away
• Don’t judge a book by its cover

The Noun Numbers / Singular And Plurals

The Noun Numbers / Singular And Plurals

1. SINGULAR: A noun that denotes one person or thing, is called Singular Number. e.g. Boy, Cow, Bird, Book, Pen.
   
2. PLURAL:  A noun that denotes more than one person or thing, is called Plural Number. e.g. Boys, Cows, Birds, Books, Pens.
   

FORMATION OF PLURAL

(i) By adding -s to singular noun:

Singular	Plural
Boy	Boys
Book	Books
Building	Buildings
Cat	Cats
Chair	Chairs
Chief	Chiefs
Chimney	Chimneys
Cliff	Cliffs
Constable	Constables
Cow	Cows
Cuff	Cuffs
Daughter	Daughters
Day	Days
Desk	Desks
Dog	Dogs
Donkey	Donkeys
Dwarf	Dwarfs
Eye	Eyes
Father	Fathers
Girl	Girls
Golf	Golfs
Handful	Handfuls
Hoof	Hoofs
House	Houses
Journey	Journeys
Key	Keys
Monkey	Monkeys
Mother	Mothers
Nose	Noses
Pen	Pens
Play	Plays
Proof	Proofs
Puff	Puffs
Roof	Roofs
Room	Rooms
Servant	Servants
Shoe	Shoes
Spoonful	Spoonfuls
Table	Tables
Toy	Toys
Tree	Trees
Vowel	Vowels
Way	Ways
Well	Wells

(ii) By adding -es to singular noun ending in -s, -sh, -ch (soft, or -x:

Singular	Plural
Ass	Asses
Box	Boxes
Bench	Benches
Branch	Branches
Brush	Brushes
Bush	Bushes
Church	Churches
Class	Classes
Dish	Dishes
Fox	Foxes
Gas	Gases
Inch	Inches
Kiss	Kisses
Match	Matches
Tax	Taxes
Watch	Watches
Wish	Wishes
Witch	Witches

(iii) By adding -es to singular noun ending in -o:

Singular	Plural
Buffalo	Buffaloes
Cargo	Cargoes
Echo	Echoes
Hero	Heroes
Mango	Mangoes
Mosquito	Mosquitoes
Negro	Negroes
Potato	Potatoes
Tomato	Tomatoes
Volcano	Volcanoes

(iv) By adding -s to singular noun ending in -o:

Singular	Plural
Canto	Cantos
Commando	Commandos
Dynamo	Dynamos
Kilo	Kilos
Logo	Logos
Memento	Mementos
Photo	Photos
Piano	Pianos
Quarto	Quartos
Solo	Solos
Stereo	Stereos
Ratio	Ratios

(v) By changing -y into -i and adding -es to singular noun ending in -y (preceded by a consonant):

Singular	Plural
Army	Armies
Baby	Babies
Body	Bodies
City	Cities
Copy	Copies
Country	Countries
Cry	Cries
Duty	Duties
Enemy	Enemies
Family	Families
Fairy	Fairies
Fly	Flies
Hobby	Hobbies
Lady	Ladies
Lorry	Lorries
Penny	Pennies
Sky	Skies
Story	Stories

(vi) By changing -f or -fe into -v and adding -es to singular noun ending in -f or -fe:

Singular	Plural
Calf	Calves
Elf	Elves
Half	Halves
Knife	Knives
Leaf	Leaves
Life	Lives
Loaf	Loaves
Self	Selves
Sheaf	Sheaves
Shelf	Shelves
Thief	Thives
Wife	Wives
Wolf	Wolves

* For some Nouns ending in -f or -fe take either -s or -ves in the plural

Singular	Plural
Dwarf	Dwarfs or Dwarves
Hoof	Hoofs or Hooves
Scarf	Scarfs or Scarves
Wharf	Wharfs or Wharves

* For some Nouns ending in -f or -fe, by adding -s:

Singular	Plural
Chief	Chiefs
Cliff	Cliffs
Gulf	Gulfs
Handerkerchief	Handerkerchiefs
Proof	Proofs
Safe	Safes

(vii) A few noun form their plural by changing their inside vowel or vowels such as:

Singular	Plural
Foot	Feet
Goose	Geese
Louse	Lice
Man	Men
Mouse	Mice
Mr.	Messrs
Tooth	Teeth
Woman	Women

(viii) By adding -en to the singular of a few nouns:

Singular	Plural
Child	Children
Ox	Oxen

(ix) A compoun noun generally form its plural by adding -s to the main word:

Singular	Plural
Class-fellow	Class-fellows
Commander-in-chief	Commanders-in-chief
Coat-of-mail	Coats-of-mail
Daughter-in-law	Daughters-in-law
Father-in-law	Fathers-in-law
Looker-on	Lookers-on
Maid-servant	Maid-servants
Man-of-war	Men-of-war
Man-servant	Men-servant
Mother-in-law	Mothers-in-law
Passer-by	Passers-by
Sister-in-law	Sisters-in-law
Son-in-law	Sons-in-law
Step-daughter	Step-daughters
Step-son	Step-sons

(x) Some nouns have the same word for singular and the plural, such as:

Singular	Plural
Aircraft	Aircraft
Cod	Cod
Deer	Deer
Dozen	Dozen
Fish	Fish (Commonly plural form),  Fishes (unusual plural form - Fishes is referring to more than one spicies of fish i.e. different kinds, especially in scientific context)
Gross	Goss
Hundred	Hundred
Pair	Pair
Salmon	Salmon
Score	Score
Series	Series
Sheep	Sheep
Spacecraft	Spacecraft
Species	Species
Swine	Swine
Trout	Trout

REMEMBER: Some nouns are only use in plural form

• Name of instruments which have two parts:
  Bellows, Gallows, Pincers, Scissors, Spectacles, Tongs.
  
  
• Name of certain articles of dresses:
  Drawers, Jeans, Pyjamas, Shorts, Socks, Tights, Trousers, Breeches, 
  
  
• Some other nouns:
  Alms, Annals, Assets, Innings, Riches, Thanks, Tidings, Proceeds (of a sale), Environs, Eaves, Nuptials, Obsequies.
  
  
• Certain Collective nouns, though singular in form are always used as plural.
  Cattle, Flock, Gentry, Hair, People, Poultry, Scenery,Vermin
  (Note: As a common noun 'People' means a nation and is used in both singular and plural.)

REMEMBER: Some nouns look plural but are in fact singular:

• Name of subjects:
  Electronics,  Mathematics, Physics etc.
  
  
• Name of some common disease:
  Measles, Mumps, Rickets
  
  
• Name of some games:
  Billiards, Draughts.
  
  
• Other Nouns:
  News
  
  
• Letters, figures and other symbols are made plural by adding an apostrophe, as:
  * e's, a's etc.
  * 5's, 9's etc.
  * B.A's
  

REMEMBER: Many nouns taken from foreign language keep their original plural form:

Singular	Plural
From Latin
Erratum	Errata
Formula	Formulae OR Formulas
Index	Indices
Memorandum	Memoranda
Radius	Radii
Terminus	Termini OR Terminuses
From Greek
Analysis	Analyses
Axis	Axes
Basis	Bases
Crisis	Crises
Criterion	Criteria
Hypothesis	Hypotheses
Parenthesis	Parentheses
Phenomenon	Phenomena
From Italian
Bandit	Banditti OR Bandits
From French
Madame (Madam)	Mesdames
Monsieur	Messieurs
From Herbew
Cherub	Cherubim OR Cherubs
Seraph	Sera

REMEMBER: Some nouns have two forms for the plural, each with different meaning:

Singular	Plural
Brother	(i) Brothers: Sons of the same parents  (ii) Brethren: Members of a society or a community.
Cloth	(i) Cloths: Kinds or pieces of cloth  (ii) Clothes: Garments
Die	(i) Dies: Stamps for coining.  (ii) Dice: Small cubes used in games.
Index	(i) Indexes: Tables of contents to books. (ii) Indices: Signs used in algebra.
Penny	(i) Pennies: Number of coins (ii) Pence: Amount in value.

REMEMBER: Some nouns Have one meaning in the singular, two in the plural:

Singular	Plural
Colour (Hue)	Colours  (i) Hues   (ii) The flag of a regiment
Customs (Habit)	Customs   (i) Habits  (ii) Duties levied on imports.
Effect (Result)	Effects  (i) Results.  (ii) Property.
Ground (i) Earth (ii) Reason	Grounds  (i) Enclosed land attached to house  (ii) Reasons  (iii) Dregs
Letter (i) Letter of the alphabet (ii) Epistle	Letters  (i) Letters of alphabet  (ii) Epistles
Manner (Method)	Manners  (i) Methods  (ii) Correct behaviour
Moral (A moral lesson)	Morals  (i) Moral lessons  (ii) Conduct
Number (A quantity)	Numbers  (i) Quantities  (ii) Verses
Pain (Suffering)	Pains  (i) Sufferings  (ii) Care, Exertions
Premise (Proposition)	Premises  (i) Propositions  (ii) Buildings.
Quarter (Fourth part)	Quarters  (i) Fourth parts  (ii) lodgings
Spectacle (A sight)	Spectacles  (i) Sights  (ii) Eye-glasses

REMEMBER: Some nouns have two meanings in the singular but only one in the plural:

Singular	Plural
Light  (i) Radiance  (ii) a Lamp	Lights (Lamps)
People  (i) Nation  (ii) Men and women	Peoples (Nations)
Powder  (i) Dust  (ii) A dose of medicine in flue grains like dust	Powders (Doses of medicine)
Practice  (i) Habit  (ii) Exercise of a profession	Practices (Habits)

• Abstract Nouns have no plural. They are uncountable:
  Hope, Charity, Love, Kindness
  
  
• Names of substances are also uncountable and are not therefore used in the plural:
  Copper, Iron, tin, Wood
  
  
• Some Nouns use as singular form only:
  Advice, Abuse
  

Note: Such nouns have different meanings in the singular and the plural, as:

1. Singular: Advice (Counsel)
   Plural: Advices (Information)
   
   
2. Singular: Air (Atmosphere)
   Plural: Airs (Affected manners)
   
   
3. Singular: Good (Benefit, well-being)
   Plural: Goods (Merchandise)
   
   
4. Singular: Compass (Extent, range)
   Plural: Compasses (An instrument for drawing circle.)
   
   
5. Singular: Respect (Regard)
   Plural: Respects (Compliments)
   
   
6. Singular: Physic (Medicine)
   Plural: Physics (Natural Science)
   
   
7. Singular: Iron (A kind of metal)
   Plural: Irons (Fetters)
   
   
8. Singular: Force (strength)
   Plural: Forces (Troops)
   
   
9. Singular: Copper (A kind of metal)
   Plural: Coppers (Copper coins)
   
   
10. Singular: Tin (A kind of  metal)
    Plural: Tins (Cans made of tins
    
    
11. Singular: Wood (Branches  of tree)
    Plural: Woods (Forest)
    
    

Noun Gender - Masculine And Feminine

GENDER

Gender comes from Latin genus (kind or sort). There are four types of gender.

• Masculine: A noun that denotes a male sex is said to be of the masculine gender.
  
  
• Feminine: A noun that denotes a female sex is said to be of the feminine gender.
  
  
• Common: A noun that denotes either a male or female is said to be of the common gender.
  Example: Baby, Child, Cousin, Enemy, Friend, Infant, Monarch, Neighbour, Orphan, Parents, Person, Pupil, Relation, Servant, Student, Thief
  
  
• Neuter: A noun that denotes a thing that is neither male nor female i.e. thing with out life is said to be of the neuter gender. (Neuter means neither i.e. neither male nor female).
  Example: Book, Pen, Room, Tree.
  
  * Objects without life are often personified, as if they were living things. We then regard them as male or female.
  Example:
  a) The Neuter Masculine Gender (applied to objects remarkable for strength and violence; as, The sun, Summer, Winter, Time Death.
  (i) The sun sheds his beam on rich and poor alike.
  
  b) The Neuter Female Gender (applied to object remarkable for beauty, gentleness and gracefulness; as, The Moon, the Earth, Spring, Autumn, Nature, Liberty, Justice, Mercy, Peace, Hope, Charity.
  (i) The Moon has hidden her face behind s cloud.
  (ii) Spring has spread her mantle of green over the earth.
  (iii) Peace hath her victories no less renowned than war.
  (iv) The ship lost all her boats in the storm.
   

Ways Of Forming The Feminine Of Nouns 

There are three ways of forming the Feminine of Nouns:

1. By Using An Entirely Different Word; as:

Masculine	Feminine
Bachelor	Maid, Spinster
Boy	Girl
Bridegroom	Bride
Brother	Sister
Bull (or Ox)	Cow
Buck	Doe
Bullock	Heifer
Cock	hen
Colt	Filly
Dog	Bitch
Drake	Duck
Drone	Bee
Earl	Countess
Father	Mother
Fox	Vixes
Gander	Goose
Gentleman	Lady
Hart	Roe
Cock	Hen
Horse	Mare
Husband	Wife
King	Queen
Lord	Lady
Man	Woman
Monk (or Friar)	Nun
Nephew	Niece
Papa	Mamma
Ram	Ewe
Sir	Madam
Son	Daughter
Stag	Hind
Uncle	Aunt
Wizard	Witch

2. By Adding A Syllable (-ess) as:

Masculine	Feminine
Author	Authoress
Baron	Baroness
Count	Countess
Heir	Heiress
Giant	Giantess
Host	Hostess
Jew	Jewess
Lion	Lioness
Manager	Manageress
Mayor	Mayoress
Patron	Patroness
Poet	Poetess
Priest	Priestess
Prince	Princess
Shepherd	Shepherdess
Steward	Stewardess
Viscount	Viscountess

(Note that in the following (-ess) is added after dropping the vowel of the masculine ending)

Masculine	Feminine
Actor	Actress
Benefactor	Benefactress
Conductor	Conductress
Director	Directress
Emperor	Empress
Enchanter	Enchantress
Founder	Foundress
Hunter	Huntress
Inspector	Inspectress
Instructor	Instructress
Murderer	Murderess
Negro	Negress
Emperor	Empress
Preceptor	Preceptress
Prince	Princess
Seamster	Seamstress
Sorcerer	Sorceress
Songster	Songstress
Tempter	Temptress
Tiger	Tigress
Traitor	Traitress
Waiter	Waitress
Abbot	Abbess
Duke	Dutchess
Master	Mistress

(Note:- The suffix (-ess) is the commonest suffix used to form feminine nouns, from the masculine, and is the only one which we now use in forming a new feminine noun.)

Masculine	Feminine
Czar	Czarina
Hero	Heroine
Lad	Lass
Mr.	Mrs.
Senor	Senorita
Signor	Signora
Sultan	Sultana
Testator	Testatrix
Widower	Widow

3. By Placing a word before or after; as:

Masculine	Feminine
Cock-sparrow	Hen-sparrow
Doctor	Lady-doctor
Grandfather	Grandmother
Great-uncle	Great-aunt
He-fox	She-fox
Jack-Ass	She-ass
Manservant	Maidservant
Landlord	Landlady
Milkman	Milk-woman
Peacock	peahen
Salesman	Saleswoman
Step-son	Step-daughter
Washer-man	Washerwoman