A verb that refers to past time is said to be the past tense. The past tense is a grammatical tense used to describe actions or events that have already occurred. It indicates that the action is completed and typically involves the use of specific verb forms.
Forms Of Past Tense
There are four forms of past tense:
Simple Past Tense
Past Progressive or Past Continuous Tense
Past Perfect Tense
Past perfect Progressive Or Past perfect Continuous Tense
Each form conveys different aspects of time and completion related to the action.
Simple Past Tense
Simple past tense is used to to describe actions or events that were completed at a specific time in the past..
FORMULA:
Subject + verb (2nd form) + Object
USES:
Completed Actions: To describe actions that were completed in the past, often with a specific time reference. e.g., "She visited Paris last year".
Sequential Actions: To narrate a series of events that occurred one after the other. e.g., "He woke up, got dressed, and left the house".
Past Habits or Routines: To indicate habits or routines that were true in the past but are no longer the case. e.g., "They played soccer every Saturday".
Past Facts or Generalizations: To state facts or general truths that were true in the past. e.g., "The company was founded in 1990".
Reported Speech: To report what someone said in the past. e.g., "She said she was tired".
SIGNAL WORDS:
Yesterday
Last week/month/year
In 2010 (or any specific year)
Ago (e.g., "two days ago")
Earlier
When (in the context of a completed action)
At that time
EXAMPLES:
Affirmative: He spoke.
Negative: He did not speak.
Question: Did he speak?
Past Progressive (Continuous) Tense
The past continuous tense, also known as the past progressive tense, is used to describe actions or events that were ongoing sometime in the past.
Subject (singular) + was + verb (1st form) ing + Object
Subject (Plural) + were + verb (1st form) ing + Object
USES:
Describing Ongoing Actions in the Past: It indicates that an action was in progress at a specific moment in the past. For example, "I was reading a book at 8 PM last night."
Setting the Scene: It helps to provide background information or context in storytelling. For example, "The sun was setting, and the birds were singing."
Simultaneous Actions: It can describe two or more actions happening at the same time in the past. For example, "While I was cooking, my friend was setting the table."
Interrupted Actions: It is used to show that a longer action was interrupted by a shorter another action. For example, "I was watching TV when the phone rang."
Repeated Actions: It can express actions that were happening repeatedly in the past, often with a sense of annoyance or habit. For example, "He was always borrowing my books without asking."
SIGNAL WORDS:
While
When
As
At that moment
During
All day
At that time
EXAMPLES:
Affirmative: * He was speaking. * They were speaking.
Negative: * He was not speaking. * They were not speaking.
Question: * Was he speaking? * Were they speaking?
Past Perfect (Simple) Tense
To describe one action that happened before another action in the past. It establishes a clear sequence of events, indicating that one past action was completed prior to another past action.
FORMULA:
Subject + had + verb (3rd form) + Object
USES:
Action taking place before a certain time in the past.
Sometimes interchangeable with past perfect progressive.
Putting emphasis only on the fact (not the duration).
SIGNAL WORDS:
already
never
just
not yet
once
until that day
If (sentence type III - e.g. If I had talked......)
EXAMPLES:
Affirmative: He had spoken.
Negative: He had not spoken.
Question: Had he spoken?
Past Perfect Progressive (Continuous)
To describe an action that started in the past and was still in progress when a second action started.
FORMULA:
Subject + had + been + verb(1st form) ing + Object
USES:
Action taking place before a certain time in the past.
Sometime interchangeable with past perfect simple.
Putting emphasis during or the course of an action.
A verb that refers to present time is said to be in the present tense. The present tense is a grammatical tense used to describe actions or states that are currently happening or are habitual. It can also express general truths or facts.
Forms Of Present Tense
There are four forms of present tense:
Present Indefinite or Simple Present Tense
Present Progressive or Present Continuous Tense
Present Perfect Tense
Present perfect Progressive Or Present perfect Continuous Tense
Present Indefinite (Simple Present) Tense
The present indefinite tense, also known as the simple present tense, is used to describe actions that are habitual, general truths, or facts that are currently true.
to express routines, schedules, and universal truths
Habitual Actions: To describe actions that are regular or habitual. For example, "She goes to the gym every morning."
General Truths: To state facts or general truths that are always true. For example, "Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius."
Scheduled Events: To refer to scheduled events in the near future, particularly in timetables or itineraries. For example, "The train departs at 6 PM."
Instructions or Directions: To give instructions or directions. For example, "Turn left at the traffic light."
Narrative Style: In storytelling or reporting, the simple present can be used to create a sense of immediacy. For example, "He walks into the room and sees everyone."
State of Being: To describe a state or condition that is currently true. For example, "She feels happy."
In exclamatory sentence beginning with here and there to express what is actually taking place in the present. For example, " Here comes the bus." "There she goes."
to indicate quotations.
SIGNAL WORDS:
Always
Usually
Often
Sometimes
Rarely
Never
Every day
On Mondays
In the morning
EXAMPLES:
Affirmative: * He speaks. * They speak.
Negative: * He does not speak. * They do not speak.
Question: * Does he speak? * Do they speak?
Present Progressive (Continuous) Tense
To indicate action that is happening at the time of speaking.
FORMULA:
Subject + auxiliary verbs (am, is, are) + verb (1st form) ing + Object
Subject (singular) + am / is + verb (1st form) ing + Object
Subject (Plural) + are + verb (1st form) ing + Object
USES:
Action take place in the moment of speaking.
Action taking place only for a limited period of time.
Now / temporary activities.
Action arranged for the future.
SIGNAL WORDS:
at the moment
just
just now
listen
Look!
now
right now
EXAMPLES:
Affirmative: He is speaking.
Negative: He is not speaking.
Question: Is he speaking?
Present Perfect (Simple) Tense
Describe action that occurred in the past but are still relevant to the present.
FORMULA:
Subject (singular) + has + verb (3rd form) + Object
Subject (Plural) + have + verb (3rd form) + Object
USES:
Putting emphasis on the result.
Action that is still going on.
Action that stopped recently.
Finished action that has an influence on the present.
Action that has taken place once, never or several times before the moment of speaking.
SIGNAL WORDS:
already
ever
just
never
not yet
so far
till now
up to now
EXAMPLES:
Affirmative: He has spoken.
Negative: He has not spoken.
Question: Has he spoken?
Present Perfect Progressive (Continuous)
To describe an event that started in the past but is still happening in the present.
FORMULA:
Subject (singular) + has + been + verb(1st form) ing + Object
Subject (Plural) + have + been + verb(1st form) ing + Object
USES:
Putting emphasis on the course or duration (not the result).
Action that recently stopped or is still going on.
It is, in fact, a conversation on any topic between two or among more than two persons. It is always in the direct kind of speech. It could be in any tense or sense.
Comprehension means complete understanding of the given passage.
There are certain rules to solve a comprehension.
READING: Read the passage carefully and try to capture all the major points and theme of the passage. Avoid all the difficult words.
RE-READING: Re-read the passage to make sure that you have captured all the major points and theme of the passage.
QUESTIONS READING: Read the questions given below the passage carefully so that you could be able to answer accordingly.
ANSWERS MARKING: Answers are available in the passage. You must find them and mark them accordingly.
ANSWERS WRITING IN OWN WORDS: We should try our best to write the answers in our own words. Because this is a rule by nature that after listening a story by someone if there is a question by the speaker regarding the story, we always answer in our own words.
REVISION: Revise all the written answers for your satisfaction. You may make a mistake because "To err is human".
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PASSAGE # 1
All parents wish that their children should get a good job. Let us see what they mean by a good job in which you have high salary but little work. They want their children to have and live a comfortable and luxurious life, with plenty of money and all kinds of desirable things. This is what they call a successful life and for this they bring up, educate their children, and wish them well. Getting a good job and living a comfortable life is not bad thing. Children are human beings and they should be educated to live a good life, not only a successful life.
Questions:
i. What do parents wish for their children?
ii. What do they mean by good job?
iii. What do they call successful life?
iv. What is the purpose of education for their parents?
v. Give nouns of the given words: luxurious, successful.
vi. Give a suitable title to the passage.
vii. Summarize the passage into one-third of its length.
Answer:
i. Parents wish for their children to get a good job and live a comfortable and luxurious life with plenty of money and desirable things.
ii. They mean by a good job in which one have a high salary but do little work.
iii. They call a successful life one where their children have a good job, live comfortably and luxuriously, and have plenty of money and desirable things.
iv. The purpose of education for parents is to bring up and educate their children is to get a good job and living a comfortably. Children should be educated to live a good life, not just a successful one.
v. Nouns of the given words:
luxurious = luxury
successful = success
vi. Suitable title for the passage: "Parental Aspirations for Children's Success and Comfort".
vii.Summary:
Parents wish for their children to have a good job with a high salary and little work, leading to a comfortable and luxurious life with plenty of money and desirable things. They believe this is essential for a successful life and therefore focus on educating their children towards this goal.
PASSAGE # 2
A professional player is quite different from an amateur. His main aim is to make money. He plays game to earn money or to win a name. On the other hand, the amateur player has no such aim. He plays because he gets pleasure in playing. Games not only give him recreation but also physical exercise. He enjoys good health and sound physique. He plays the game as he wish. He observes all the rules and regulations of game. An amateur player plays honestly. He becomes gentleman and a reasonable citizen. He accepts his duties. He does not use to cheat or other unfair means. If he wins a game, he feels happy but he is not sad at losing it.
Questions:
i. What is meant by professional player?
ii. With what aim does a professional play games?
iii. What makes an amateur person a responsible citizen?
iv. How does an amateur player differ from a professional player?
v. Give adjectives of the given words: pleasure, duty.
vi. Give a title to the passage.
vii. Summarize the passage into one-third of its length. Answer:
i. A professional player is someone who plays games with the main aim of making money.
ii. A professional player plays games to earn money or to win a name.
iii. An amateur person becomes a responsible citizen by playing games honestly, following rules and regulations, and accepting their duties.
iv. An amateur player differs from a professional player in that they play for pleasure and recreation, not primarily for financial gain or fame.
v. Adjectives of the given words:
Pleasure = pleasurable
Duty = dutiful
vi. Title for the passage: "Contrasting Traits of Professional and Amateur Players".
vii. Summary:
Professional players aim to make money and gain recognition through playing games, while amateur players play for pleasure, recreation, and physical exercise. Amateurs follow rules, play honestly, and become responsible citizens by accepting their duties without resorting to cheating or unfair means.
PASSAGE # 3
In every country, people imagine that they are the best and the cleverest and the others are not, as good as they are. The Englishmen thinks that he and his country are the best; the Frenchman is very proud of France and everything French. The Germans and Italians think no less of their countries and many Indians imagine that India is in many ways the greatest country in the world. This is wrong. Everybody wants to think well of himself and his country. But really there is no person, who has not got some good and some bad qualities. In the same, there is no country, which is not partly good and partly bad. We must take the good wherever we find it and try to remove the bad wherever it may be. We are, of course, most concerned with our own country We have to find out how we can make them happier. Many of our people are poor and unhappy; they have no joy in their lives. We have to find out how we can make them happier. We have to see what is good in our ways and customs and try to accept it, and whatever is bad we have to throw away. If we find anything good in other countries, we should certainly accept it.
Questions:
i. What does everyone think of his country?
ii. What should we find out first?
iii. What should one accept or reject from the others?
iv. What should we do with our ways and customs?
V. Give antonyms of the given words: poor, partly.
vi. Write a summary of the given paragraph into one-third of its length.
vii. Give a suitable title.
Answer:
i. Everyone thinks that their country is the best and that they are the cleverest, while others are not as good as they are.
ii. We should first find out how we can make our country happier, especially for those who are poor and unhappy.
iii. One should accept the good qualities from other countries and reject the bad ones.
iv. We should accept the good aspects of our ways and customs, while discarding the bad ones.
v. Antonyms:
Poor = Rich
Partly = completely.
vi. Summary:
People tend to believe that their country is the best, but every country has both good and bad qualities. It is important to focus on making our country happier by accepting the good and discarding the bad, while also learning from other countries.
vii. Suitable title: Embracing the Good, Rejecting the Bad OR Building a Happier Country.
PASSAGE # 4
Overeating is one of the most wonderful practices among those who think that they can afford it. In fact, authorities say that nearly all who have meal as much as they desire avoid the disadvantages of meal. This class of people could save a great more food than they can save by missing one meal per week and at the same time they could improve their health.
A heavy meal at night, the so-called "dinner', is the fashion with many and often it is taken shortly before retiring. It is unnecessary and a loss of strength. Usually three to five hours are needed to digest the food. While sleeping, the food that is in many cases converted into excess fat, giving rise to over-weight. The evening meal should be light, taken three or four hours before retiring. This prevents overeating, conserves energy and reduces the unnecessary fats in the body.
Questions:
i. Who practices over-eating?
ii. What do authorities say about meal?
iii. What is the disadvantage of meal if is taken just before retiring?
iv. What are the advantages of meal if on time?
V. Give verbs of the given words: practice, authority.
vi. Give a title to the passage.
vii. Summarize the passage into one-third of its length.
Answers:
i. Those who think they can afford it practice over-eating.
ii. Authorities say that nearly all who eat as much as they desire avoid the disadvantages of over-eating.
iii. The disadvantage of eating a heavy meal just before retiring is that it can lead to excess fat and overweight as the body does not have enough time to digest the food.
iv. The advantages of eating meals on time include saving more food, improving health, conserving energy, and reducing unnecessary fats in the body.
v. Verbs:
Practice = practicing
Authority = authorize.
vi. Title: The Importance of Timely and Light Meals for Health.
vii. Summary:
Over-eating, especially before retiring, can lead to excess fat and overweight. Authorities recommend eating light meals three to four hours before bedtime to prevent overeating, conserve energy, and reduce unnecessary fats in the body.
PASSAGE # 5
Trees give shade for the benefit of others and while they themselves stand in the sun and endure scorching heat, they produce the fruit by which others gain profit. The character of good men is like that of trees. What is the use of this perishable body, if no use of it is made for the benefit of mankind? Sandalwood - the more it is rubbed, the more scent does it yield. Sugarcane - the more it is peeled and cut into pieces, the more juice does it produce. The men who are noble at heart do not lose these qualities even in losing their lives. What does it matter, whether men praise them or not? What does it signify, whether they die at this moment or whether their lives are prolonged? Happen what may, those who tread right path will not set foot in other. Life itself is unprofitable to a man, who does not live for others. To live for the mere sake of living one's own life is to live the life of cows and dogs. Those who lay down their lives for the sake of a friend, or even for the sake of a stranger, will assuredly dwell forever in the world of bliss.
Questions:
i. What kind of character should a man have?
ii. What examples are given to emphasize the service to mankind?
iii. What does the writer compare the life of dogs and cows with?
iv. Give synonyms of the given words: stranger, bliss.
V. Give a title to the passage.
vi. Summarize the passage into one-third of its length.
Answers:
i. A man should have a character like that of trees, giving shade and producing fruit for the benefit of others.
ii. Examples of sandalwood and sugarcane are given to emphasize the idea that the more one gives or sacrifices, the more they yield for the benefit of others.
iii. The writer compares living solely for oneself to living the life of cows and dogs.
iv. Synonyms:
Strange = Unknown person
Bliss = Happiness.
v. Title: Selfless Service and Noble Character.
vi. Summary:
The passage highlights the importance of selfless service to mankind, comparing the character of good men to that of trees providing shade and fruit for others. It emphasizes that living solely for oneself is akin to living the life of cows and dogs, and that those who sacrifice for others will find eternal bliss.
IDIOMS: Idioms are expression (phrase) peculiar to a language, which cannot be understood simply by looking at the meaning of the individual words in the phrase.
Many verbs, when followed by various prepositions, or adverbs acquires idiomatic sense. Example:
Break down
In black & white
An apple of one's eye
A red letter day etc.
PHRASE: Phrase is a group of words or a word without a subject or predicate. It is a grammatical unit and it adds meaning to a sentence.
Types Of Phrases: There are five main types of phrases:
Noun Phrase: A Noun phrase is a group of words that does work of a noun. E.g. * Early to bed * Playing cricket * To go home * A big red balloon etc.
Adjective Phrase: An adjective phrase is a group of words that does work of an adjective. E.g. * Made of gold * In need * Of purple * With a white skin etc.
Adverb Phrase: An adverb phrase is a group of words that does work of an adverb. E.g. * On the whole * In a former time * Run quickly * All my heart etc.
Verb Phrase: A verb phrase is a group of words that does work of a verb. They are combination of auxiliary verb (helping verb) and the main verb. E.g. * Are working * Have eaten * Can smell * Will have been studying etc.
Prepositional Phrase: A prepositional phrase is a group of words that begins with a preposition and ends with a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase. E.g. * At a glance * In a hurry * On the table * For a reason etc.
CLAUSE: Such a group of words that forms part of a sentence and has a Subject and Predicate of its own is called a clause. E.g.
They rested when evening come. In above sentence,'when evening come' is a clause' as it is a part of sentence. Here evening is noun (subject) and when come is predicate.
Types Of Clauses: There are some common type of clauses are:
Independent Clause: is a group of words that can stand alone to make a simple meaningful sentence as a regular sentence. It contains a subject and predicate. It is also called a principal clause. Independent clauses can be connected by using a semicolon or comma the followed by a coordinators such as and, but, so, or, nor, for, yet. Example: * I will call you when I reach home. * John is a very successful doctor. * Can you do it? * I want to buy a phone, but I don’t have enough money. (Two independent clauses).
Dependent Clause: is a group of words that cannot stand alone as a complete sentence because it does not give complete idea or thought but help the independent clauses to complete the sentence. It contains subject and predicate. It is also called a subordinate clause or subclause or embedded clause. In each of the dependent clauses, the first word is a subordinator. Subordinators include relative pronouns, subordinating conjunctions, and noun clause markers. Example: * When the sunset the stars come out. * Caesar couldn't catch the train because he was late. * If you don’t eat, I won’t go. * After the storm, we went outside to access the damage.
Types Of Dependent Clauses: They are divided into three types: i) Adjective Clause: An adjective clause is a Dependent Clause that modifies a Noun. It is a group of words which contains a subject and predicate of its own and does the work of an Adjective. These are also called Relative Clauses and they usually come right after the Nouns they modify. Examples: * The umbrella which has broken handle is mine. * He met a girl whose eyes are blue. * A person who never made a mistake never tried anything new.
ii) Noun Clause: A noun clause is a Dependent Clause. It is a group of words which contains a subject and predicate of its own and does the work of a Noun. They are called Nominal Clauses. These clauses often start with “how,” “that,” or other WH-words (What, Who, Where, When, Why, Which, Whose and Whom), if, whether etc. Examples: * I expect that I shall get a prize. * I don't know what he wants. * He knows how things work around here.
iii) Adverbial Clause: An adverb clause is a Dependent Clauses. It is a group of words which contains a subject and predicate of its own and does the work of an Adverbs. It means that these clauses have the power to modify Verbs, Adjectives and other Adverbs. Example: * Alice is not playing with us because he injured his knees last night. * I went through the book at a lightning speed. * They rested when evening come.
Coordinate Clause: A coordinate clauses are two or more independent clauses in a sentence that are joined by one or more Coordinating Conjunctions (and, or, but etc.) in terms of Compound Sentences are called Coordinate Clauses. It is a group of words containing a subject and predicate. Examples: * Andrew prefers flying but his wife always wants to take a bus. * The students finished class so they went to lunch. * The rain ended and the sun came out.
Non-finite Clause: Non-finite clause does not have a finite verb. It does not show tense or time of verb and does not contain subject. There are three types of non-finite clause. (i) The word ending in -ing is used. Examples: * The stars shone brightly, dancing around the moon last night. * Hearing the fireworks, the children jumped up. (ii) The verb come after the word to * He gave up his job to travel the world. * He was the last person to talked to me.
(iii) The past particle form of the verb is used. * Disappointed with his quality the boss decided to fire him. * All children gathered in the group, were ready to perform a traditional dance.
PROVERBS: A proverb is a brief and wise saying that shares practical advice or general truth about life. In simple words proverb is a short saying or statement that usually offers life advice, wisdom, or a truth. Example:
SINGULAR: A noun that denotes one person or thing, is called Singular Number. e.g. Boy, Cow, Bird, Book, Pen.
PLURAL: A noun that denotes more than one person or thing, is called Plural Number. e.g. Boys, Cows, Birds, Books, Pens.
FORMATION OF PLURAL
(i) By adding -s to singular noun:
Singular
Plural
Boy
Boys
Book
Books
Building
Buildings
Cat
Cats
Chair
Chairs
Chief
Chiefs
Chimney
Chimneys
Cliff
Cliffs
Constable
Constables
Cow
Cows
Cuff
Cuffs
Daughter
Daughters
Day
Days
Desk
Desks
Dog
Dogs
Donkey
Donkeys
Dwarf
Dwarfs
Eye
Eyes
Father
Fathers
Girl
Girls
Golf
Golfs
Handful
Handfuls
Hoof
Hoofs
House
Houses
Journey
Journeys
Key
Keys
Monkey
Monkeys
Mother
Mothers
Nose
Noses
Pen
Pens
Play
Plays
Proof
Proofs
Puff
Puffs
Roof
Roofs
Room
Rooms
Servant
Servants
Shoe
Shoes
Spoonful
Spoonfuls
Table
Tables
Toy
Toys
Tree
Trees
Vowel
Vowels
Way
Ways
Well
Wells
(ii) By adding -es to singular noun ending in -s, -sh, -ch (soft, or -x:
Singular
Plural
Ass
Asses
Box
Boxes
Bench
Benches
Branch
Branches
Brush
Brushes
Bush
Bushes
Church
Churches
Class
Classes
Dish
Dishes
Fox
Foxes
Gas
Gases
Inch
Inches
Kiss
Kisses
Match
Matches
Tax
Taxes
Watch
Watches
Wish
Wishes
Witch
Witches
(iii) By adding -es to singular noun ending in -o:
Singular
Plural
Buffalo
Buffaloes
Cargo
Cargoes
Echo
Echoes
Hero
Heroes
Mango
Mangoes
Mosquito
Mosquitoes
Negro
Negroes
Potato
Potatoes
Tomato
Tomatoes
Volcano
Volcanoes
(iv) By adding -s to singular noun ending in -o:
Singular
Plural
Canto
Cantos
Commando
Commandos
Dynamo
Dynamos
Kilo
Kilos
Logo
Logos
Memento
Mementos
Photo
Photos
Piano
Pianos
Quarto
Quartos
Solo
Solos
Stereo
Stereos
Ratio
Ratios
(v) By changing -y into -i and adding -es to singular noun ending in -y (preceded by a consonant):
Singular
Plural
Army
Armies
Baby
Babies
Body
Bodies
City
Cities
Copy
Copies
Country
Countries
Cry
Cries
Duty
Duties
Enemy
Enemies
Family
Families
Fairy
Fairies
Fly
Flies
Hobby
Hobbies
Lady
Ladies
Lorry
Lorries
Penny
Pennies
Sky
Skies
Story
Stories
(vi) By changing -f or -fe into -v and adding -es to singular noun ending in -f or -fe:
Singular
Plural
Calf
Calves
Elf
Elves
Half
Halves
Knife
Knives
Leaf
Leaves
Life
Lives
Loaf
Loaves
Self
Selves
Sheaf
Sheaves
Shelf
Shelves
Thief
Thives
Wife
Wives
Wolf
Wolves
* For some Nouns ending in -f or -fe take either -s or -ves in the plural
Singular
Plural
Dwarf
Dwarfs or Dwarves
Hoof
Hoofs or Hooves
Scarf
Scarfs or Scarves
Wharf
Wharfs or Wharves
* For some Nouns ending in -f or -fe, by adding -s:
Singular
Plural
Chief
Chiefs
Cliff
Cliffs
Gulf
Gulfs
Handerkerchief
Handerkerchiefs
Proof
Proofs
Safe
Safes
(vii) A few noun form their plural by changing their inside vowel or vowels such as:
Singular
Plural
Foot
Feet
Goose
Geese
Louse
Lice
Man
Men
Mouse
Mice
Mr.
Messrs
Tooth
Teeth
Woman
Women
(viii) By adding -en to the singular of a few nouns:
Singular
Plural
Child
Children
Ox
Oxen
(ix) A compoun noun generally form its plural by adding -s to the main word:
Singular
Plural
Class-fellow
Class-fellows
Commander-in-chief
Commanders-in-chief
Coat-of-mail
Coats-of-mail
Daughter-in-law
Daughters-in-law
Father-in-law
Fathers-in-law
Looker-on
Lookers-on
Maid-servant
Maid-servants
Man-of-war
Men-of-war
Man-servant
Men-servant
Mother-in-law
Mothers-in-law
Passer-by
Passers-by
Sister-in-law
Sisters-in-law
Son-in-law
Sons-in-law
Step-daughter
Step-daughters
Step-son
Step-sons
(x) Some nouns have the same word for singular and the plural, such as:
Singular
Plural
Aircraft
Aircraft
Cod
Cod
Deer
Deer
Dozen
Dozen
Fish
Fish (Commonly plural form), Fishes (unusual plural form - Fishes is referring to more than one spicies of fish i.e. different kinds, especially in scientific context)
Gross
Goss
Hundred
Hundred
Pair
Pair
Salmon
Salmon
Score
Score
Series
Series
Sheep
Sheep
Spacecraft
Spacecraft
Species
Species
Swine
Swine
Trout
Trout
REMEMBER: Some nouns are only use in plural form
Name of instruments which have two parts: Bellows, Gallows, Pincers, Scissors, Spectacles, Tongs.
Name of certain articles of dresses: Drawers, Jeans, Pyjamas, Shorts, Socks, Tights, Trousers, Breeches,
Some other nouns: Alms, Annals, Assets, Innings, Riches, Thanks, Tidings, Proceeds (of a sale), Environs, Eaves, Nuptials, Obsequies.
Certain Collective nouns, though singular in form are always used as plural. Cattle, Flock, Gentry, Hair, People, Poultry, Scenery,Vermin (Note: As a common noun 'People' means a nation and is used in both singular and plural.)
REMEMBER: Some nouns look plural but are in fact singular:
Name of subjects: Electronics, Mathematics, Physics etc.
Name of some common disease: Measles, Mumps, Rickets
Name of some games: Billiards, Draughts.
Other Nouns: News
Letters, figures and other symbols are made plural by adding an apostrophe, as: * e's, a's etc. * 5's, 9's etc. * B.A's
REMEMBER: Many nouns taken from foreign language keep their original plural form:
Singular
Plural
From Latin
Erratum
Errata
Formula
Formulae OR Formulas
Index
Indices
Memorandum
Memoranda
Radius
Radii
Terminus
Termini OR Terminuses
From Greek
Analysis
Analyses
Axis
Axes
Basis
Bases
Crisis
Crises
Criterion
Criteria
Hypothesis
Hypotheses
Parenthesis
Parentheses
Phenomenon
Phenomena
From Italian
Bandit
Banditti OR Bandits
From French
Madame (Madam)
Mesdames
Monsieur
Messieurs
From Herbew
Cherub
Cherubim OR Cherubs
Seraph
Sera
REMEMBER: Some nouns have two forms for the plural, each with different meaning:
Singular
Plural
Brother
(i) Brothers: Sons of the same parents (ii) Brethren: Members of a society or a community.
Cloth
(i) Cloths: Kinds or pieces of cloth (ii) Clothes: Garments
Die
(i) Dies: Stamps for coining. (ii) Dice: Small cubes used in games.
Index
(i) Indexes: Tables of contents to books. (ii) Indices: Signs used in algebra.
Penny
(i) Pennies: Number of coins (ii) Pence: Amount in value.
REMEMBER: Some nouns Have one meaning in the singular, two in the plural:
Singular
Plural
Colour (Hue)
Colours
(i) Hues (ii) The flag of a regiment
Customs (Habit)
Customs
(i) Habits (ii) Duties levied on imports.
Effect (Result)
Effects
(i) Results. (ii) Property.
Ground (i) Earth (ii) Reason
Grounds
(i) Enclosed land attached to house (ii) Reasons (iii) Dregs
Letter (i) Letter of the alphabet (ii) Epistle
Letters
(i) Letters of alphabet (ii) Epistles
Manner (Method)
Manners
(i) Methods (ii) Correct behaviour
Moral (A moral lesson)
Morals
(i) Moral lessons (ii) Conduct
Number (A quantity)
Numbers
(i) Quantities (ii) Verses
Pain (Suffering)
Pains
(i) Sufferings (ii) Care, Exertions
Premise (Proposition)
Premises
(i) Propositions (ii) Buildings.
Quarter (Fourth part)
Quarters
(i) Fourth parts (ii) lodgings
Spectacle (A sight)
Spectacles
(i) Sights (ii) Eye-glasses
REMEMBER: Some nouns have two meanings in the singular but only one in the plural:
Singular
Plural
Light
(i) Radiance (ii) a Lamp
Lights (Lamps)
People
(i) Nation (ii) Men and women
Peoples (Nations)
Powder
(i) Dust (ii) A dose of medicine in flue grains like dust
Powders (Doses of medicine)
Practice
(i) Habit (ii) Exercise of a profession
Practices (Habits)
Abstract Nouns have no plural. They are uncountable: Hope, Charity, Love, Kindness
Names of substances are also uncountable and are not therefore used in the plural: Copper, Iron, tin, Wood
Some Nouns use as singular form only: Advice, Abuse
Note: Such nouns have different meanings in the singular and the plural, as:
Gender comes from Latin genus (kind or sort). There are four types of gender.
Masculine: A noun that denotes a male sex is said to be of the masculine gender.
Feminine: A noun that denotes a female sex is said to be of the feminine gender.
Common: A noun that denotes either a male or female is said to be of the common gender. Example: Baby, Child, Cousin, Enemy, Friend, Infant, Monarch, Neighbour, Orphan, Parents, Person, Pupil, Relation, Servant, Student, Thief
Neuter: A noun that denotes a thing that is neither male nor female i.e. thing with out life is said to be of the neuter gender. (Neuter means neither i.e. neither male nor female). Example: Book, Pen, Room, Tree.
* Objects without life are often personified, as if they were living things. We then regard them as male or female. Example: a) The Neuter Masculine Gender (applied to objects remarkable for strength and violence; as, The sun, Summer, Winter, Time Death. (i) The sun sheds his beam on rich and poor alike.
b) The Neuter Female Gender (applied to object remarkable for beauty, gentleness and gracefulness; as, The Moon, the Earth, Spring, Autumn, Nature, Liberty, Justice, Mercy, Peace, Hope, Charity. (i) The Moon has hidden her face behind s cloud. (ii) Spring has spread her mantle of green over the earth. (iii) Peace hath her victories no less renowned than war. (iv) The ship lost all her boats in the storm.
Ways Of Forming The Feminine Of Nouns
There are three ways of forming the Feminine of Nouns:
1. By Using An Entirely Different Word; as:
Masculine
Feminine
Bachelor
Maid, Spinster
Boy
Girl
Bridegroom
Bride
Brother
Sister
Bull (or Ox)
Cow
Buck
Doe
Bullock
Heifer
Cock
hen
Colt
Filly
Dog
Bitch
Drake
Duck
Drone
Bee
Earl
Countess
Father
Mother
Fox
Vixes
Gander
Goose
Gentleman
Lady
Hart
Roe
Cock
Hen
Horse
Mare
Husband
Wife
King
Queen
Lord
Lady
Man
Woman
Monk (or Friar)
Nun
Nephew
Niece
Papa
Mamma
Ram
Ewe
Sir
Madam
Son
Daughter
Stag
Hind
Uncle
Aunt
Wizard
Witch
2. By Adding A Syllable (-ess) as:
Masculine
Feminine
Author
Authoress
Baron
Baroness
Count
Countess
Heir
Heiress
Giant
Giantess
Host
Hostess
Jew
Jewess
Lion
Lioness
Manager
Manageress
Mayor
Mayoress
Patron
Patroness
Poet
Poetess
Priest
Priestess
Prince
Princess
Shepherd
Shepherdess
Steward
Stewardess
Viscount
Viscountess
(Note that in the following (-ess) is added after dropping the vowel of the masculine ending)
Masculine
Feminine
Actor
Actress
Benefactor
Benefactress
Conductor
Conductress
Director
Directress
Emperor
Empress
Enchanter
Enchantress
Founder
Foundress
Hunter
Huntress
Inspector
Inspectress
Instructor
Instructress
Murderer
Murderess
Negro
Negress
Emperor
Empress
Preceptor
Preceptress
Prince
Princess
Seamster
Seamstress
Sorcerer
Sorceress
Songster
Songstress
Tempter
Temptress
Tiger
Tigress
Traitor
Traitress
Waiter
Waitress
Abbot
Abbess
Duke
Dutchess
Master
Mistress
(Note:- The suffix (-ess) is the commonest suffix used to form feminine nouns, from the masculine, and is the only one which we now use in forming a new feminine noun.)
A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. (نو نقد نہ تیرا ادھار۔) Meaning: The things we already have are more valuable than the things we only hope to get.
A blind man is no judge of color. (اندھا کیا جانے بسنت کی بہار۔)
A drop in the ocean. (اونٹ کے منہ میں زیرا۔)
A figure among cyphers. (اندھوں میں کانا راجا۔)
A good beginning makes a good ending. (آغاز اچھا انجام اچھا۔)
A guilty conscience needs no accuser. (چور کی داڑھی میں تنکا۔)
A honey tongue, a heart of gall. (زبان پر شہید، دل میں زہر۔)
A little learning is a dangerous thing. (نیم حکیم خطرہ جان۔)
A man may bear till his back break. (برداشت کی بھی حد ہوتی ہے۔)
A nine days wonder. (چار دن کی چاندنی پھر اندھیری رات۔)
A person try to be on two sides goes nowhere. (دھوبی کا کتا نہ گھر کا نہ گھاٹ کا۔)
A poor worker blames his tools. (ناچ نہ جانے آنگن ٹیڑھا۔)
A wolf in lamb's clothing. (بغل میں چھری چھری منہ پہ رام رام۔)
A word to the wise is sufficient. (عقل مند کے لیے اشارہ ہی کافی ہے۔)
All that glitters is not gold. (ہر چمکتی چیز سونا نہیں ہوتی۔)
As you sow so shall you reap. (جیسی کرنی ویسی بھرنی۔)
B
Barking dogs seldom bite. (جو گرجتے ہیں وہ برستے نہیں۔)
Between the devil and the deep sea. (آگے کنواں پیچھے کھائی۔)
Birds of same feather flock together. (ایک ہی تھالی کے چٹے بٹے۔)
Blood is thicker than water. (اپنا اپنا ہوتا ہے۔)
C
Cast pearls before swine. (بھینس کے آگے بین بجانا۔, بندر کیا جانے ادرک کا مزا۔)
Casting pearls before swine.
Child is in the armpit, chaos in the city. (بچہ بغل میں ڈھنڈورا شہر میں۔)
Cut your coat according to your cloth. (جتنی چادر ہو اتنا پاؤں پھیلاؤ۔)
D
Diamonds cut diamonds. (لوہا لوے کو کاٹتا ہے۔)
Division is main reason for the damage. (گھر کا بھیدی لنکا ڈھاۓ۔)
Do good and cast into the river. (نیکی کر دریا میں ڈال۔)
Do evil and look for like? (برے کام کا برا انجام۔)
Don't put off your work till tomorrow what you can today. (آج کا کام کل پر مت چھوڑو۔)
Drowning man catches at straw. (ڈوبتے کو تنکے کا سہارا۔)
E
Easy come, easy go. (مال منت دل بے رحم۔)
Empty vessels make more noise. (خالی برتن زیادہ آواز دیتا ہے۔)
F
First come. first served. (پہلے آیئے پہلے پایئے۔)
Fool to others to himself a sage. (اپنے منہ میاں مٹھو۔)
G
Gather thistles and expect pickles. (کانٹے بونے کے بعد پھول کی امید کرنا۔)
Getting involved without having. (مان نہ مان میں تیرا مہمان۔)
God helps those who help themselves. (خدا انکی مدد کرتا ہے جو اپنی مدد آپ کرتا ہے۔)
God's mill grinds slow but sure. (خدا کے گھر دپر ہے مگر اندھیر نہیں۔)
Good mind, good find. (آپ بھلے تو جگ بھلا۔)
Grapes are sour. (انگور کھٹے ہیں۔) Meaning: Criticism or disparagement of that which one cannot have or achieve.
Great cry but little wool. (اونچی دکان پھیکا پکوان۔)
Greed is a curse. (لالچ بری بلا ہے۔)
H
Hard nut to crack. (لوہے کے چنے چبانا۔)
Hard work is the key to success. (محنت کامیابی کی کنجی ہے۔)
Haste makes waste. (جلدی کا کام شیطان کا۔)
Honesty is the best policy. (ایمانداری بہترین حکمت عملی ہے۔)
Honest livelihood is equal to prayer. (راق حلال عین عبادت ہے۔)
I
If Allah wills not, no one can Harm. (جسے اللہ کھے اسے کون چکھے۔)
In Rome do as the Romans do. (جیسا دیس ویسا بھیس۔)
It is the matter of time. (وقت وقت کی بات ہوتی ہے۔)
It takes two to quarrel. (تالی ایک ہاتھ سے نہیں بجتی۔)
J
K
L
Let bygones be bygones. (جو ہوگیا سو ہوگیا۔)
Live and let live. (جیو اور جینے دو۔)
Line on the rock. (پتھر پہ لکیر۔)
Love begets love. (دل کو دل سے راہ ہوتی ہے۔)
M
Make a mountain out of a molehill. (کھودا پہاڑ نکلا چوہا۔)
Make hay while the sun shines. (بہتی گنگا میں ہاتھ دھونا۔)
Man is known by the company he keeps. (آدمی اپنی صحبت سے پہچانا جاتا ہے۔)
Man is mortal. (انسان فانی ہے۔)
Might is right. (جس کی لاٹھی اسکی بھینس۔)
Milk of milk, water of water. (دودھ کا دودھ، پانی کا پانی۔)
Money earned the wrong way will be taken away, would be lost. (چور کا مال کسی کام نہ آیا۔)
More mouths will have more talks. (جتنے منہ اتنی باتیں۔)
N
Necessity is the mother of invention. (ضرورت ایجاد کی ماں ہے۔)
No man can serve two masters. (ایک میان میں دو تلواریں نہیں رہ سکتیں۔)
No man is an island. (ہر انسان دوسرے کا محتاج ہے۔)
No use crying over split milk. (اب کیا ہوت جب چڑیا چک گئیں کھیت۔)
Nobody respects a selfish person. (خود غرض انسان کی کوئی عزت نہیں ہوتی۔)
O
Old mare, red reigns. (بوڑھی گھوڑی لال لگام۔)
Once bitten twice shy. (دودھ کا جلا چھاچھ بھی پھونک کر پیتا ہے۔)
Only if you are alive, things matter. (جان ہے تو جہان ہے۔)
Out of the frying pan into the fire. (آسمان سے گرا کھجور میں اٹکا۔)
P
Prevention is better than cure. (احتیاط علاج سے بہتر ہے۔)
Pure gold does not fear the flame. (سانچ کو آنچ نہیں۔)
Q
R
Rubbing salt on one's wound. (زخموں پر نمک چھڑکنا۔)
S
See which way the wind is blowing. (تیر دیکھ تیر کی دھار دیکھ / اونٹ کس کروٹ بیٹھتا ہے۔)
Slow and steady wins the race. (مستقل مزاجی کامیابی کی کنجی ہے۔)
Something is better than nothing. (بھاگتے چور کی لنگوٹ ہی سہی۔)
Speak of the devil and he will appear. (شیطان کا نام لیا اور وہ حاضر۔)
Strike while the iron is hot. (موقع کو ہاتھ سے نہ جانے دو۔)
T
Tell the truth and shame the devil. (سچ کا بول بالا، جھوٹ کا منہ کالا۔)
The grass is always greener on the other side. (دور کے ڈھول سہانے۔)
The less people think the more they talk. (جو کم سوچتے ہیں وہی زیادہ بولتے ہیں۔)
The pot calling the kettle black. (الٹا چور کوتوال کو ڈانٹے۔)
The snake dies and the club doesn't break. (سانپ بھی مرجاۓ اور لاٹھی بھی نہ ٹوٹے۔)
There is something at bottom. (دال میں کچھ کالا ہے۔)
Think before you speak. (پہلے بات کو تولو پھر منہ سے بولو۔)
Time and tide wail for none. (وقت کسی کا انتیظار نہیں کرتا۔)
To err is human. (انسان غلطی کا پتلا ہے۔)
To go about the same old beaten path. (لکیر کے فقیر۔)
To show anger after getting embarrassed. (کھسیانی بلی کھمبا نوچے۔)
To talk big without having a big position. (چھوٹا منہ بڑی بات۔)
Too many cooks spoil the soup. (دو ملاؤں میں مرغی حرام۔)
Two and two make four. (دو اور دو چار ہوتے ہیں۔)
Two hunts with one arrow. (ایک تیر سے دو شکار۔)
U
United we stand, divided we fall. (اتفاق میں برکت ہے۔)
V
Virtue is its own reward. (نیکی اپنا صلہ آپ ہے۔)
W
Walls have ears. (دیواروں کے بھی کان ہوتے ہیں۔)
Where there's life, there's hope. (جب تک سانس تب تک آس۔)
Where there is a will, there is a way. (جہاں چاہ وہاں راہ۔)
